The status, trends, and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in the South Shore Estuary Reserve (SSER) has been analyzed by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS).
This report presents the findings of this study and suggests preliminary recommendations to guide management, protection, and restoration efforts in the reserve area.
Colonial nesting marine birds and wading birds (waterbirds) are important and conspicuous components of coastal ecosystems. They represent several orders of waterbirds that
typically nest in colonies, a trait likely evolved as a defense against predators. Nineteen species of colonial waterbirds nest in the South Shore Estuary Reserve (SSER) (Table 1).
Two species of shorebirds are considered with this group: the threatened piping plover and the endangered American oystercatcher, which do not nest in distinct colonies, but are
closely associated with, and share the same habitats as many colonial nesters. These two species are included here for their use of the SSER for the nesting portion of their life
histories, but are also included under the South Shore Estuary Reserve Shorebird Draft Technical Report to address shorebird migratory habitat. Colonial nesting birds often
concentrate in small areas and are vulnerable to disturbance, predation, habitat destruction, and other events that can eliminate large numbers of birds. Several waterbird species feed
near the top of the estuarine food web and are good indicators of estuarine environment health.
Database
An annual survey, the Long Island Colonial Waterbird and Piping Plover Survey(Sommers and Meskill 1994, Sommers et al. 1996, Sommers and Alfieri 1997) has been conducted
for nesting waterbird species since 1982. Coordinated by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC), it is carried out by federal, state, and local
agencies, private conservation organizations, and individual volunteers. Before this ground-based survey, surveys of Long Island colonies were conducted by helicopter for 5 years in
the 1970's (Buckley and Buckley 1980). Federal coastal waterbird atlases were also published covering the Atlantic coast of the northeastern United States (including Long Island)
for 1977 (Erwin and Korschgen 1979) and 1984-1985 (Andrews 1990). An atlas is being compiled for 1994-1996 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS).
To analyze colonial waterbird status and trends, species counts from the Long Island Colonial Waterbird and Piping Plover Survey for 1985-1996 were entered into a database. To
make data consistent, nesting pair numbers was converted to number of estimated adults at each colony based on conversion formulas or doubling of the nest counts. Site names that
changed in 1994 and 1995 were matched with previous site names in the database to allow for analysis of trends at a particular colony. Number of adults by colony site name for each
species are provided in Appendix A. Total estimated number of adults and colonies of each nesting waterbird species is presented in Table 1.
Maps
The maps show survey sites, areas of long-term use (1985 to1996), and one-year (1995) use by colonial nesting species recorded in the Long Island Colonial Waterbird and Piping
Plover Survey. This geographic representation allows comparison of total area surveyed, areas of long term use, and areas of short-term use.
Survey segments from maps in the reports of 1995 and 1996 (Sommers et al. 1996, Sommers and Alfieri 1997) were digitized on a geographic information system (GIS) using
on-screen digitizing in ARCVIEW with United States Geological Survey (USGS) 1:24,000 quadrangles as background map images. Survey boundaries are accurate to within 40 to
50 feet. Greater accuracy was not feasible or necessary. Survey boundaries correspond directly to data reported in the annual Long Island Colonial Waterbird Survey reports and
entered into a database.
Cumulative nesting areas for species from 1982 to 1996 were digitized from element occurrence boundaries established by the New York Natural Heritage Program (1997) for
piping plover, least tern, roseate tern, and black skimmer. For other species, maps developed earlier by USFWS, New York State Department of State (NYSDOS), The Nature
Conservancy (TNC), and other sources were updated. Boundaries were transferred by hand to USGS 1:24,000 quadrangles with colony names and other comments labeled directly
on the maps. Maps were digitized on screen using ARCVIEW with digital image data of 1:24,000 USGS quadrangles in the background. Colony boundaries were revised when
needed to match 1:24,000 digital shoreline based on 1981 New York State Department of Transportation quadrangles. This digital shoreline was updated using 1994 digital
orthophotos for dynamic inlet areas (Jones, Fire Island, Moriches, Shinnecock, and Pikes, the 1993 breach area).
Waterbird colony boundaries of 1995 were determined from the survey maps, forms filled out by surveyors, and from NYSDEC's Long Island Colonial Waterbird Survey, which
was interpreted and mapped on USGS 1:24,000 quadrangles. Maps were digitized as described above.
For the cumulative nesting area maps and the 1995 maps, colony boundaries were coded only with presence or absence of each species. Separate colony boundaries were not
determined for each species, but were determined for those species groups using similar habitats. The five species groups are:
Beach nesting birds: piping plover and least tern;
Island and beach nesting terns: common tern, roseate tern, Forsters tern and gull-billed tern;
All herons, egrets, ibises, and cormorants;
All gull species;
Black skimmers and American oystercatchers were generally grouped with terns and plovers on the beach, and with terns on the islands, though they were shown as separate
colonies if appropriate.
Maps were produced at a scale of 1:50,000. Maps at a scale of 1:175,000 are attached to this report for illustrative purposes (Figures 1 and 2). Digital data that may be displayed at
any scale is stored in ARCVIEW and ARCINFO formats.
In the SSER an average annual total of more than 32 thousand waterbirds has nested in recent years with a 1987 maximum of more than 45 thousand. A significant (r = 0.84)
declining trend is observed for colonial waterbirds from 1985 to 1995 (Figure 3), with apparent abundance precipitously falling from 1989 to a low of 16,071 in 1995, although not
all species were surveyed in 1994 or 1996. The most abundant species in the reserve was common tern, followed by herring gull, least tern, and great black-backed gull. Common
tern, herring gull, and several other species share a similar pattern of increasing numbers in the late 1980's followed by a steady decline (Figure 4). During this period, a total
cumulative area of approximately 2,227 hectares (5,503 acres) was used by waterbirds for nesting (Figures 1 and 2). A discussion of species groups follows.
Reserve islands are important for nesting and foraging by nine species of long-legged waders such as herons, egrets, and ibises, with a 1985 to 1995 yearly average total of more than
1,600 adults for all species. Glossy ibis, snowy egret, black-crowned night-heron, and great egret are the most common species of long-legged waders nesting in the reserve. Lesser
numbers of little blue herons, green-backed herons, tricolored herons, yellow-crowned night-herons, and cattle egrets also nest. These birds typically nest in shrubs or trees on salt
marsh or dredged material islands. Most heronries occur on the islands of the western bays, from Hempstead east to Captree (Figure 5). Heronries also occur on islands in the south
shore bays of central and eastern Long Island (Great South Bay, Moriches Bay, and Shinnecock Bay). Although some heronries were occupied for all or most of the years surveyed,
notably Ponquogue Spoil Island in Southampton, Nazeras Island in Babylon, and South Pine Marsh in Hempstead, several were used only intermittently. Total populations of
long-legged waders have been stable for the last 12 years with year-to-year variability ranging between 1,993 birds counted (1986) to 1,214 birds counted (1992) is observed.
The average of 442 adult glossy ibis in the SSER represents half Long Island's nesting population for this species during 1985-1995. Ibis were distributed at an average of six to
seven colonies, fewer colonies than the other abundant wader species in the SSER. The largest ibis colony during this period, about 200 birds in most years, occurred at South Pine
Marsh in Hempstead, although few or none were present 1991 to 1993. This absence corresponds with an increased occurrence at nearby Meadow Island, a likely example of
year-to-year movement of birds from one colony to another (Figure 5). New ibis colonies occurred on Ingraham Hassock, Sanford Island, and Pipe Island / Sand Island in 1995.
Snowy egrets showed a great deal of year-to-year variability with a low of 259 adults recorded during the 1995 survey. It is not known if this represents a longer term decline.
Snowy egrets in the SSER accounted for an average of 38 percent of the total Long Island population of this species. A large, consistent colony of snowy egrets occurs at
Ponquogue Spoil Island in Southampton, averaging more than 80 birds per year. Like glossy ibis, the population of snowy egrets at South Pine Marsh in Hempstead declined while
new colonies were found at Meadow Island and North Cinder Island.
Black-crowned night-herons in the SSER are spread out over many colonies with an average total of 414 adults occurring at an annual average of more than 11 colonies. The
black-crowned night-herons in the SSER account for 54 percent of the total Long Island population of this species. The largest consistently-used colonies for black-crowned
night-heron were at Nazeras Island in Babylon, South Pine Marsh in Hempstead, and Ponquogue Spoil Island in Southampton. Black-crowned night-herons are thought to be
nocturnal predators on common and roseate tern chicks at several locations on Long Island.
Great egrets show a very similar distribution to snowy egrets, but at lower numbers, with an average of 212 adults accounting for an average of 43 percent of the total Long Island
population for this species. With the decline in the snowy egret population in 1995, the total number of great egrets exceeded the number of snowy egrets during that year.
Double-crested cormorants nested once at West Inlet Island in Brookhaven in 1989. Increased nesting by cormorants can be expected as the regional population expands, resulting
in greater competition with other nesting waders for nest space and destruction of nesting trees by guano.
Gulls and terns nest on sparsely vegetated dredge spoil islands, dunes, beaches, and salt marsh islands, and are widely distributed throughout the back barrier lagoon system of the
estuary. Common terns, for example, occurred at 35 different colonies in the SSER in 1996. Most of the colonies occur on islands in the western bays between Hempstead and
Captree. American oystercatcher and black skimmer nest in habitats similar to those of the gulls and terns, especially on sandy islands and shorelines. Gulls, terns, and skimmers as a
group have declined 60 percent from 1985 (35,241 birds counted) to 1995 (14,237 birds counted) with a significant linear decline since 1989.
Common tern is the most abundant nesting waterbird in the SSER, averaging more than 16,000 adults during 1985 to 1996. This species has experienced a significant decline of
more than 70 percent from 1985 (24,265) to 1996 (7,192) (Figure 6). The population peaked in 1987 with 29,921 birds, and has since shown a sharp linear decline from 1990 to
1995. This decline is due in part to the reduction in the largest common tern colony at Cedar Beach, which is now part of Jones Beach Island East. Bird counts dropped from 12,000
in 1986 to 450 in 1996. Other large colonies shrank at Jones Beach Island West (formerly Jones Beach West End), Carters Island, and Warner Islands. The reduction in the Cedar
Beach colony seems due in part to vegetational succession decreasing available nesting area and increased predation by mammalian and avian predators (Burger 1995, B. Zitani,
Town of Babylon pers. comm.). In 1995, total predation and abandonment of the tern and skimmer colony at Cedar Beach occurred in mid-June. The 1996 population was the
lowest recorded for Cedar Beach since the early 1970's (Gochfeld 1976). Federally listed endangered roseate terns also declined at Cedar Beach during the same period, from 200 to
33 adults, and black skimmers declined from 400 to 126. Jones Beach West End colony, occurring in an interdune habitat similar to Cedar Beach, also declined, apparently due to
vegetational succession and predation. Declines at Carters and Warners Islands have been partly attributed to erosion and increased human disturbance from boat landings. Declines
may also be related to contaminants. Berger et al. (1994), in their examination of lead levels in the feathers of common tern from the estuary, suggest that the finfish forage base is a
probable vehicle of contaminant transfer. Common tern populations on Long Island as a whole have not declined as significantly, showing only a 20 percent decline over the same
period. Populations at Great Gull Island in Southold and Breezy Point in Queens have increased over the same period, suggesting those birds from the SSER have moved to these
areas. Less than 1 percent (an average of 0.24 percent from 1993-1997) of the common terns trapped on Great Gull Island were from Cedar Beach, and the percentage of birds
declined 1993 to 1997 but it is not known how many birds were originally banded (H. Hayes, American Museum of Natural History, pers. comm.). This shift is also evident in that
SSER common tern colonies as a percent of total Long Island common tern colonies have remained stable (65 in 1985, 69 in 1996), while the percent of total adults dropped from 62
to 25. It is possible that birds from the larger colonies are distributed in smaller colonies on salt marsh islands in the SSER that are not seen on annual surveys. Declines in common
tern have also been noted in New Jersey, with a 46 percent decline from 1989 to 1995 (Jenkins et al. 1990, NJSDEP 1996). The population of common terns nesting on the Atlantic
coast from Maine to Virginia however, increased slightly from an estimated 47,960 nesting pairs to 48,149 nesting pairs in 1995 (USFWS, in preparation). Many common tern
colonies on the south shore are on salt marsh islands. In 1996 for example, 19 of 35 common tern colonies, or 54 percent were on salt marsh islands. As salt marsh is not considered
ideal nesting habitat due to flooding and other problems, this may suggest a lack of available and suitable habitat (Erwin et al. 1981, Buckley and Buckley 1980).
Roseate terns occurred between two and six small colonies in the SSER during 1985 to 1996. Populations fluctuated between 130 and 325 adults, an average of only 9 percent of
the total New York population for this species. Most of the remainder of the state's population of roseate tern, and a large percent of the total northeastern population, occurs at
Great Gull Island in Southold. SSER colonies are the southernmost of the northeastern United States population, and critical to the USFWS Roseate Tern Recovery Plan's (1989)
recovery goal of increasing the nesting population to 5,000 pairs distributed among six large colonies at a minimum, eventually achieving 8,500 pairs among at least 30 sites. With
the decline in the Cedar Beach population, Warner Islands South Island now has the largest population in the SSER. Erosion of this island is greatly reducing nesting habitat for
roseate terns and increasing the threat of flooding during the nesting season.
Herring gull numbers in the SSER have declined in a pattern similar to common terns with a peak in 1988 (10,695 adults) declining to a low of 4,201 adults in 1995, a 60 percent
decline. The number of colonies also declined from 22 to 14 (reorganizing and combining of survey sites accounts for three of these "lost" colonies). Herring gulls in SSER colonies
account for an average of 40 percent of the Long Island total for this species. The Long Island population as a whole has declined about 40 percent. Declines in herring gulls in this
area were also noted from 1974 to 1978 (Buckley and Buckley 1980). It is unknown if this declining trend is due to the closing of landfills, which were thought to have originally
attracted gulls in large numbers to this area. Herring gulls are considered major competitors for nesting space with terns, and a predator on tern chicks. Declining herring gull
population trends should be favorable for tern colonies, but so far this has not been evident for common tern.
In contrast to the clumped distribution of gulls, terns, and long-legged waders, beach-nesting birds are more evenly dispersed along the ocean shorelines of Long Island. The largest
numbers of piping plover, least tern, and black skimmer nest on sandy barrier beaches and spits near inlets. Nesting beaches with many piping plovers in the SSER include Jones
Beach Island and Westhampton Beach. Interestingly, plovers are not as abundant on Fire Island where there is less human disturbance possibly due to a lack of suitable feeding and
brood-rearing areas (Elias-Gerken 1994); see under conservation considerations below. Populations of beach-nesting birds, greatly reduced by coastal development, recreation,
market-hunting, and predation, have increased over the last decade, partly in response to greatly increased management and protection, including signage, fencing, predator exclusion,
and patrols, of nesting beaches. Piping plovers of the SSER increased from 83 adults counted in 1985 to 250 adults in 1996, a 67 percent increase, while least terns increased from
1,360 in 1985 to 2,152 in 1996, a 37 percent increase (Figure 7). Part of this increase may also be related to increased survey effort corresponding to the listing of the piping plover
as a federally listed threatened species in 1986 (Downer and Leibelt 1990, USFWS 1995). Overall productivity of the plover, however, remains low due to predation and other
factors. The overall productivity for Long Island in 1996 for example was 1.14 chicks fledged per nesting pair with a similar level for sites in the reserve (Sommers and Alfieri 1997).
This productivity is below the U.S. Atlantic coast average of 1.31 chicks fledged per nesting pair and well below the goal of 1.5 chicks recommended in the revisedUSFWS Piping
Plover Recovery Plan (1995). Beaches of the SSER supported 49 percent of the total Long Island piping plover population and 11 percent of the United States Atlantic coast
population in 1996. SSER colonies accounted for an average 53 percent of the total Long Island least tern population during that year.
Threats and Conservation Considerations
Extensive development and concomitant habitat modification and impacts from oil and chemical spills, dredging, water pollution, and predation, have placed waterbird colonies at
increasing risk, especially in the Northeast. The most significant threats to colonial nesting waterbirds in the SSER are human disturbance, mammalian and avian predation, habitat
degradation, and contaminants. Recreational activity on bird-nesting islands and beaches during spring and summer breeding seasons is detrimental to such disturbance-sensitive
species as plovers, terns, and wading birds. Nesting colonial waterbirds and piping plovers are especially vulnerable April to August to human intrusion and disturbance such as
trampling, picnicking, boat landing, off-road vehicle use, and disturbance by pets.
Predation is a major problem in waterbird colonies. On beaches, mammalian predators such as foxes, raccoons, rats, dogs, and cats are a major problem. Island colonies, generally
free from mammalian predation, may be subject to predation by gulls, crows, black-crowned night-herons, and other birds. Predation or parasitism by ticks, ants, and beetles can also
occur.
Degradation of nesting and foraging habitat is a major threat to both island-nesters and beach-nesters. Attempts to stabilize and control erosion on beaches often results in a loss of
natural diversity and decreased habitat suitability for nesting and feeding plovers. Increased vegetation and succession on some islands may reduce their suitability for nesting by terns
and gulls. Invasion of salt marsh islands by common reed, Phragmites australis, reduces suitability for tern and oystercatcher nesting. Erosion of salt marsh and dredge spoil islands
results in loss of nesting habitats. Guano produced by nesting and perching double-crested cormorants not only destroys trees and reduces the suitability of nesting islands for herons
in Long Island Sound, but can also affect other areas as cormorants expand into the estuary. Competition for nesting sites and predation by gulls results in loss of tern nesting habitat.
Contaminants can be a major threat to waterbirds, especially those that feed at or near the top of the aquatic food web where organochlorine pesticides, heavy metals and other
contaminants can bio-accumulate at high levels. Indications are that this is a problem on Long Island (Burger et al. 1994).
An important factor to be recognized in management of colonial nesting waterbirds is that nesting waterbirds move from site to site, one year to the next, even during a nesting
season. This can depend on factors including severe weather event, human disturbance, predation, vegetational succession, and expanding populations. Any suitable habitat may be
used in a given year whether historical, newly created, or previously unoccupied habitats. For example, in 1995 about 33 percent (1798 acres) of the cumulative nesting area (5503
acres) for the period 1985 to 1996 was used (Figures 1 and 2). The apparent movement of herons between South Pine Marsh and adjacent colonies is a good example of year to year
shifts (Figure 5). Management is critical not only for presently occupied habitats, but also for known historical and potential habitats.
It is recommended that waterbird feeding areas be recognized and protected. Further investigation and delineation of key feeding areas are needed for the SSER and Long Island overall, to fully understand the habitat and area needs for these species.
Roseate terns are known to travel sizable distances from nesting to foraging areas, for example more than 12 miles from Falkner Island in Long Island Sound (S.B. McKinney,
National Wildlife Refuge pers. comm.). Common and roseate terns have been observed flying from colonies in Moriches and Great South Bay about 15 miles overland to Long
Island Sound to feed (Raynor 1972).
It is recommended that existing efforts be supported and expanded to eliminate and reduce human disturbances of nesting colonies during the critical nesting season.
This can be accomplished by posting signs, fencing off nest sites, boat warden patrols, and public education. It is fortunate that Long Island has a dedicated network of professionals
and volunteers who appraise and protect the beaches. Protection and enforcement are more difficult on the islands. A disturbance issue recently considered is Fourth of July
fireworks at several sites and the associated crowds of people, vehicles and boats that descend on these beach nesting areas during the peak of chick rearing for piping plover, least
tern, and other colonial nesting waterbirds. It is critical that fireworks are located to avoid impacts to nesting waterbirds, and that sufficient enforcement and public outreach is used
to limit disturbance.
It is recommended that active habitat management and vegetation control be used to enhance physical habitat conditions favorable to breeding bird colonies, and to
discourage the proliferation of gulls, human-associated species, and natural predators.
In tern and skimmer colonies for example, control of vegetation succession by removal and thinning of plants or placement of sand, can maintain habitat suitability. Removal of
beach grass in selected interdune areas at Cedar Beach is being tried and should be supported. For roseate terns, placement of shelters or planting of appropriate vegetation such as
goldenrod, or creation of small openings in vegetated areas, may increase suitable habitat. Loss of goldenrod and other vegetation has been implicated in the decline of roseate terns
at some colonies. Removal and control of common reed on salt marsh islands can enhance the nesting habitat for terns and oystercatchers. It should be recognized however, that
habitat management for one species may negatively affect other species and that this type of management must be done carefully. Predation should be assessed and predator control
carried out site-by-site. Removing a few individual predators that target nesting birds is sometimes sufficient to lessen the impacts. Active management measures for these species is
justified as a means to counteract continuing human-induced adverse impacts.
It is recommended that dredged material deposition can and should be designed to enhance, and not destroy, habitat on nesting islands and beaches.
Some sandy islands and salt marsh islands in the SSER are eroding; this should be controlled and suitable nesting habitat restored. Warner Islands South Island for example, is
eroding with resulting loss of nesting habitat for common and roseate terns (M. England, Audubon Society, pers. comm.). Placement of dredge spoil on this island, if done carefully,
can result in increased nesting. These are local areas where erosion is exacerbated by human recreational activities and boat wakes. Widespread erosion control projects proposed
for the south shore need critical appraisal.
It is recommended that SSER beach erosion control projects recognize the dynamic nature of barrier island over wash and breaching, and the needs of fish and wildlife
species that occur in near shore waters, on beaches and dunes, and in back barrier bays and marshes.
Tern, plover, and shorebird areas created by the breach in the barrier beach at Pikes Beach in 1993 illustrates the importance of this natural process for establishing habitat. The lack
of piping plover nesting on the undeveloped Wilderness Area of Fire Island for example, is thought to be due in part to a lack of inlets and suitable over-wash feeding and
brood-rearing areas (Elias-Gerken 1994); habitat types that are more common on dynamic, undisturbed, barrier island systems. Building of dunes or other erosion control methods
may further reduce the suitability of the beach for beach nesting birds. Surge channels and over wash through the dunes, and removal or thinning of beach grass, has been proposed
and may help to increase suitable habitat on Fire Island and in other areas.
It is recommended that acute and chronic impacts of contaminants on colonial nesting waterbirds and their forage base be investigated, and contaminated foraging areas
be given a high priority for remediation.
Studies of lead in feathers of terns and skimmers at Cedar Beach showed a connection to the finfish forage base, and possible bird behavioral impairment and growth retardation
(Burger et al. 1994). These lead levels decreased from 1976 to 1988, but then began to increase while common tern numbers began to decline at Cedar Beach and in the SSER
overall. A relationship between decline of common tern and increasing lead levels is not established, but additional investigation of this issue and the impacts of other contaminants is
warranted. Regional declines in waterbird populations should be investigated further to learn if they are natural fluctuations or related to contaminants or other threats. Productivity
studies of common tern colonies on beaches, sandy islands, and marshes might help managers determine if marshes act as contaminant sinks.
Andrews, R. 1990. Coastal waterbird colonies: Maine to Virginia, 1984-1985. An update of an atlas based on 1977 data, showing colony locations and species composition at both
time periods, with examination of changes in regional populations. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Newton Corner, MA.
Buckley, P.A. and F.G. Buckley. 1980. Population and colony-site trends of Long Island waterbirds for five years in the mid-1970s. Transactions of the Linnaean Society of New
York 9:23-56.
Burger, J. 1991. Coastal landscapes, coastal colonies, and seabirds. Reviews in Aquatic Sciences 4(1):23-43.
Burger, J., M. Horoszewski Lavery, M. Gochfeld. 1994. Temporal changes in lead levels in common tern feathers in New York and relationship of field levels to adverse effects in
the laboratory. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 13(4): 581-586.
Burger, J. 1995. Memorandum to Audubon and New York Department of Environmental Conservation regarding nesting activities at Cedar Beach.
Downer, R.H. and C.E. Leibelt. 1990. 1989 Long Island colonial waterbird and piping plover survey. Reserach report of the New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation, Stony Brook, NY.
Elias-Gerken, S.P. 1994. Piping plover habitat suitability on central Long Island, New York barrier islands. M.S. Thesis, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, VA.
Erwin, R.M., J. Galli, and J. Burger. 1981. Colony site dynamics and habitat use in Atlantic Coast seabirds. Auk 98:550-561.
Erwin, R.M. and C.E. Korschgen. 1979. Coastal waterbird colonies: Maine to Virginia, 1977. An atlas showing colony locations and species composition. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Biological Services Program, FWS/085-79/08.
Gochfeld, M. 1976. Waterbird colonies of Long Island, New York 3. Cedar Beach ternery.Kingbird 26(2):63-80.
Gochfeld, M. 1974. Waterbird colonies of Long Island, New York 1. Introduction. Kingbird24(2):3-7.
Howe, M.A., R.B. Clapp, and J.S. Weske. 1978. Marine and coastal birds. Marine Ecosystems Analysis Program New York Bight Atlas Monograph 31. New York Sea Grant
Institute, Albany, NY.
Jenkins, C.D., Jr., L.J. Niles, and J. Wessel. 1990. Survey of colonial nesting waterbirds on the Atlantic coast of New Jersey - 1989. New Jersey Department of Environmental
Protection, Division of Fish, Game and Wildlife, Endangered and Nongame Species Program, Trenton , NJ
Litwin, T.S., A. Ducey-Ortiz, R.A. Lent, and C.Liebelt. 1993. 1990-1991 Long Island colonial waterbird and piping plover survey. Conducted by New York State Department of
Environmental Conservation in cooperation with the Seatuck Research Program.
NJDEP (New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection). 1996. Unpublished 1995 colonial waterbird survey data. Endangered and Nongame Species Program, Trenton , NJ
New York Natural Heritage Program. 1997. Element occurence boundary maps. Latham, NY.
NYSDOS (New York State Department of State) and TNC (The Nature Conservancy). 1991. Long Island's beach-nesting shorebird habitat: protection and management of a
vulnerable resource. Draft report.
Raynor., G.S. 1972. Overland feeding flights by the common tern on Long Island. Kingbird22(2):63-70
Sommers, L. and K. Meskill. 1994. 1992-1993 Long Island Colonial Waterbird and Piping Plover Survey. Conducted by New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation, Stony Brook, New York.
Sommers, L.A., M.L. Alfieri, K.J. Meskill, and R.L. Miller. 1996. 1995 Long Island Colonial Waterbird and Piping Plover Survey. Conducted by New York State Department of
Environmental Conservation, Stony Brook, New York and Delmar, New York.
Sommers, L.A. and M.L. Alfieri. 1997. 1996 Long Island Colonial Waterbird and piping Plover Survey. Conducted by New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation, Stony Brook, New York and Delmar, New York.
USFWS (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). 1989. Roseate tern (Sterna dougallii) recovery plan, northeastern population. Region 5, Newton Corner, Massachusetts.
USFWS (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). 1995. Piping plover (Charadrius melodus) Atlantic coast population revised recovery plan, technical/agency draft. Region 5, Hadley,
Massachusetts.
USFWS (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). In preparation. Atlantic coast colonial waterbird nesting data 1994-1996. USFWS Migratory Bird Office, Patuxent, MD.
Notes: Conversions from nesting pairs to adults based on Erwin and Korschgen 1979 as modified by Litwin et al. 1993 for New York State
American Oystercatcher first surveyed in New York in 1986
1994-1996 surveys in New York lumped colonies that were recorded as indivual colonies in previous surveys